The nuances of designing a women's blouse: from sketch to cutting

Every girl and woman's wardrobe, regardless of the style she prefers in clothing, must have blouses. There will certainly be a reason to wear any of them; these garments never go out of fashion, so they are always relevant for creating feminine looks. Cutting and sewing blouses will not take much time; all you need is a desire to do it.

The main task, difficult at first glance, is to choose a style that will best emphasize or, conversely, hide the features of the figure. To do this, it is enough to know your body type and the basics of designing clothes for it. Then you need to choose the fabric from which you will cut the blouse and determine the required footage. We will tell you how to do this to avoid mistakes.

Rubber materials

Rubber is a product of chemical processing of rubber, obtained as a result of vulcanization.
The most common vulcanizing agent is sulfur. During the vulcanization process (heating in sulfur vapor), the linear structure of rubber turns into a spatial structure due to the fact that sulfur, reacting with carbon atoms that have double bonds before vulcanization, connects macromolecules. During vulcanization, thermoplastic plastic turns into a thermoset with a spatial structure. In addition to rubber and vulcanizer, rubber includes:

1. antioxidants (antioxidants) - substances that prevent the oxidation of rubber; they bind oxygen that has diffused into the rubber (chemical), or form protective films that protect against oxidation (physical) - paraffin, wax;
2. plasticizers that facilitate the processing of rubber mixtures - paraffin, petroleum jelly, etc.;
3. fillers - active (carbon black, silicon and zinc oxides), participating in the formation of a three-dimensional structure and therefore increasing quality properties;
4. inert materials (chalk, talc), introduced to reduce costs;
5. mineral or organic dyes that perform a decorative function. In addition, by absorbing the short-wave part of the solar spectrum, they delay light aging of rubber.

During operation, rubber products are subject to various types of aging (light, ozone, heat, etc.). As a result of aging, irreversible changes in properties occur.

An increase in temperature reduces the strength of rubber; the operating temperature of non-heat-resistant rubber does not exceed 150°C, and of special heat-resistant rubber - 320°C.

At low temperatures, transformation into a glassy state and loss of elastic properties occur. Rubber products can be used at temperatures from –30 to +80°C.

According to their intended purpose, rubber can be general purpose or special. General purpose rubbers include NK, SKB, SKS, SKI: NK - based on natural rubber, SK - synthetic. Special rubbers include oil- and gasoline-resistant, heat-resistant, frost-resistant, light-ozone-resistant, wear-resistant and electrical.

Electrical rubbers are divided into electrically insulating and electrically conductive. Electrical conductivity is achieved by introducing carbon black and graphite into rubber.

Belts, sleeves, transport belts, gaskets are made from general-purpose rubber (a low elastic modulus determines high vibration-damping properties), etc.

Documentation of material consumption

Consumption of materials

is an economic event that means the cessation of their existence in their original material form. In any organization, the consumption of materials must be confirmed by documents.

To record the consumption of raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, the organization uses either its own or standard document forms. Such documents can be, in particular, an act of write-off of materials, an act of consumption of materials in production, an act of write-off of gasoline.

A document confirming the consumption of raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials is drawn up at the end of each month or more often, signed by the responsible employee of the unit, the head of the unit and approved by the head of the organization or an authorized person.

The amount of materials used, indicated in the act, must be justified.

For most materials, it is possible to establish consumption standards that will link the consumption of materials with production processes or other economic events of the organization.

For example, gasoline consumption for a car owned by an organization is confirmed by waybills (which represent tasks for the driver to complete trips indicating the mileage), standards for gasoline consumption per kilometer (from the car manufacturer), and documents for payment for gasoline.

Expenses of materials in connection with emergency circumstances: damage or theft are recorded in a special way. Such consumption of materials is documented in a document prepared by the commission

and approved by the head of the organization.

Thus, the consumption of material as a result of its damage or defects during the production process can be documented in a defect report.

This document indicates: characteristics of the marriage, its reason; quantity of rejected products; actual costs to correct the defect; amounts to be recovered from those responsible for the marriage (if any); losses from marriage.

The commission must determine the degree of suitability of the damaged material for further use. Thus, she can admit that the material has lost its advantages slightly, which is only expressed in a decrease in the grade of the material. In accounting, this means reducing the book price of the material. As a last resort, the commission recognizes that the damaged material is not suitable for anything, and it is even useless to try to sell it. That is, the commission equates spoiled material to garbage that should simply be thrown away (recycled). For accounting purposes, this means that the cost of the damaged material must be completely written off.

Some material costs are identified as a result of an inventory count. The reason for such expenses can be either improper performance by the financially responsible person of his duties, or natural loss of material during long-term storage (the so-called shrinkage and attrition).

The costs of materials identified by the inventory are documented in a unified document - a matching statement of the results of the inventory of inventory items.

Adhesives

Using adhesive materials, you can join dissimilar materials, which is sometimes not possible with other types of joints. The technology of working with adhesive materials makes it possible to obtain structures of complex shapes with lower labor costs.

The advantage of adhesive joints is that they are more reliable and durable, resist the effects of aggressive environments for a long time and have high strength.

The disadvantages of adhesives include their tendency to age, relatively high cost and, in some cases, toxicity.

According to their physical state, adhesives are liquids of various viscosities, films, powders, granules based on natural or synthetic adhesives.

The natural group includes adhesives of animal, plant and mineral origin. Animal adhesives are obtained from protein substances contained in the tissues, bones, blood and milk of animals. These include glutin, casein, and albumin. Mineral adhesives - silicate, asphalt, bitumen. Synthetic adhesives are produced on the basis of synthetic resins, which are obtained from simple substances as a result of complex chemical processes.

According to their reactivity, adhesives can be:

1. thermosetting;
2. thermoplastic;
3. dispersive.

Thermosetting adhesives are chemically cured, resulting in the formation of an irreversible adhesive joint with increased heat and water resistance. These are urea-formaldehyde and phenol-formaldehyde adhesives.

Thermoplastic adhesives are capable of melting under the influence of heat and, after cooling, hardening again without changing the chemical composition. Upon subsequent heating, such adhesives melt again. Such adhesives include flesh, bone, hot melt adhesives, nitrocellulose, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, etc.

Depending on the materials being glued, adhesive materials are distinguished: for gluing foam plastics and wood; metals and non-metals; rubber together and gluing it to other materials; fabrics, etc.

Adhesives must meet the following basic requirements:

1. ensure high strength of the adhesive connection;
2. have high stability and viability during storage;
3. have a high dielectric loss factor;
4. be moisture-, water- and biologically resistant, non-toxic, easy to use, cheap;
5. maintain mechanical strength over time;
6. be close in color to the materials being glued.

I am often asked the question of what fabrics this or that machine sews. Buyers are very surprised when I don’t mention very heavy materials or light knitwear. Recently, to my surprise, reproaches have been added, which in advanced cases sound like this: “On other sites they write that the machine will sew “super heavy” fabrics, but I can’t hem jeans on it! Why did you sell me such a bad car?

After such a statement, I decided to clarify this issue and create my own rating system for the range of materials. I will evaluate only the quality of straight stitching and the very possibility of doing it without using a stabilizer. I will give ratings on a five-point scale.

Before you try to sew anything, it is very important to choose the right thread and needle for your fabric and set the thread tension correctly. Without such a selection, you can only sew towels for the kitchen. It’s not worth referring to the memories of your grandmother’s machine, which “could sew everything from chiffon to leather without settings with one needle” - leave them in childhood, when the grass was greener.

So, for high-quality work with very light fabrics (crepe de Chine, chiffon, voile, cambric), the machine requires a small hole size in the needle plate and a pressure regulator for the presser foot on the fabric. We will give two points for the presence in the accessories catalog of a presser foot and a needle plate with a round hole or for a built-in mechanism for reducing the size of this hole, and for other machines we will award one point for the small size of the hole in a standard zigzag plate. We'll give the pressure regulator one point. Working with thin materials is “fine matter” and two more points will be left for the subjective part of the assessment, and the labor intensity and the very possibility of setting up the machine to work with these materials will be assessed.

Typically, working with light fabrics (calico, satin, shirting fabrics, dress fabrics, satin) does not cause any special problems if you select the right threads and adjust the tension accordingly. A base score of 4 points will be assigned to each vehicle. Another 1 point will be added for the ease of setting up the machine. And if it is impossible to obtain a high-quality line, the points will be reduced.

Medium and moderately heavy fabrics (flannel, tights, corduroy, thin jeans, suit fabrics) should be sewn “A” by any machine. If there are problems with such fabrics, then the rating will be reduced from the basic 5 stars.

To confidently work with heavy fabrics (jeans, gabardine, raincoat fabrics, light coats), high motor power is important. Machines with DC motors with a power of more than 45 W and machines with conventional motors with a power of more than 75 W will receive two points, and less powerful ones will get by with one. The built-in upper fabric conveyor is a great help when sewing heavy materials. For its presence, one point will be added. A developed wide “toothed” comb of the lower conveyor will bring another point. Iron cars weighing more than 8 kg will receive another point. A high lift of the presser foot is important for working with thick materials, but there is no particular point in evaluating it specifically, since in almost all household machines the presser foot rises to approximately the same height - about 6 mm in the first position and about 12 mm in the second.

Very heavy fabrics (thick denim, drape, tarpaulin) should not be sewn on modern household machines. You can often hear that a machine sews 8 or even 10 layers of jeans. But it would be correct to say that it does not pierce, but pierces. Many machines can pierce such materials with a relatively thin needle, as long as the motor power is sufficient. But just piercing is not enough; you still need to advance the material the length of the stitch, tighten the loop inside the fabric and sometimes climb onto the thickenings to pass the seams. These are the tasks that no modern household machine can handle. I don’t even recommend trying, since sewing such materials can quickly lead to damage to the needle plate, displacement of the hook or needle bar, and other similar troubles. In industry, to work with very heavy materials, triple-feed machines with an enlarged shuttle and thick needles No. 140-160 are used (by the way, the household standard 130/705H does not produce needles with numbers greater than 120).

In a good way, knitwear should be sewn on an overlocker and a flat-stitch machine. The seams that these units make are elastic, and the differential conveyor prevents the knitwear from stretching. If you are serious about working with knitwear, read the article “How to choose a serger” and allocate a budget for its purchase. Knitwear of medium thickness can be sewn on a sewing machine, but the result will most often be close to unsatisfactory. Each car will receive this basic score - two points. We will add another point for the presence of presser foot pressure adjustment or a built-in upper conveyor in the machine. We'll give the special stitching for knitwear another point. We will not give more than four points. Thin knitwear, and especially with the addition of synthetic elastic fibers, will most likely not be sewn properly on a lockstitch sewing machine. The only more or less working option is to glue the seams with a fashionable water-soluble stabilizer, folk gelatin, or use another stabilization method. I will not evaluate the machine’s ability to work with such knitwear at all.

A machine for working with not very thick clothing and haberdashery leather must meet the requirements for sewing heavy fabrics. The rating will simply be copied from there. Additionally, you will need to use a foot with a sliding coating and special needles for leather. Household machines are not suitable for sewing heavy saddlery or shoe leather.

Here are the ratings popular cars will receive under the proposed system:

Husqvarna E20

Very light - 3 (1 for small needle plate hole + 1 for pressure regulator + 1 for adjustability) Light - 5 (4 + 1 for ease of adjustment) Medium to moderately heavy - 5 Heavy - 4 (2 for power + 1 for weight + 1 for the conveyor comb) Knitwear - 3 (2 + 1 for the presence of pressure adjustment) Leather - 4

Pfaff Smarter 160s

Very light - 4 (1 for small needle plate hole + 1 for pressure regulator + 2 for adjustability) Light - 5 (4 + 1 for ease of adjustment) Medium to moderately heavy - 5 Heavy - 4 (2 for power + 1 for weight + 1 for the conveyor comb) Knitwear - 3 (2 + 1 for the presence of pressure adjustment) Leather - 4

New Home NH15060

Very light - 3 (1 for pressure regulator + 2 for adjustability) Light - 5 (4 + 1 for ease of adjustment) Medium and moderately heavy - 5 Heavy - 3 (1 for power + 1 for weight + 1 for feed dog) Knitwear — 4 (2 + 1 for pressure adjustment + 1 for stitching for knitwear) Leather — 3

Pfaff Expression 4.2

Very light - 5 (2 for the ability to buy a foot and needle plate for straight stitch + 1 for the pressure regulator + 2 for the ability to adjust) Light - 5 (4 + 1 for ease of adjustment) Medium and moderately heavy - 5 Heavy - 5 (2 for power + 1 for the upper conveyor + 1 for weight + 1 for the conveyor comb) Knitwear - 4 (2 + 1 for the presence of pressure adjustment and the upper conveyor + 1 for the stitching for knitwear) Leather - 5

Types of paints and varnishes

Paints are a mixture of finely ground pigments and fillers with a solution of film-forming substances. They are used to obtain an opaque coating that covers the surface texture of the material being painted.

Depending on the purpose, there are paints for exterior and interior use. Depending on the type of film former and purpose, they are divided into:

1. adhesive - based on aqueous solutions of plant and animal adhesives;
2. oil - based on drying oils and synthetic polymers;
3. enamel - based on varnishes.

Adhesive paints are prepared at the point of consumption. Oil paints require a long drying time, so 5 to 10% driers are added to their composition to speed up drying.

The industry produces thickly grated colored oil paints (GOST 8292–95). These are MA-025 and MA-015 paints. They are available in 17 colors and are designed for painting metal and wooden surfaces. Water-based paints (GOST 19214–80) are available in 10 colors and are used indoors for working on wood, plaster and other porous materials.

Water-dispersion paints (GOST 20833–75) are used for painting buildings on brick, concrete, plastered, wooden and other porous surfaces. Available in 17 colors.

Enamels are a suspension of pigments in varnishes with the addition of plasticizers and siccatives. The purpose of enamels is to provide an opaque finish to wood products. Oil enamels are used for finishing products made from various materials:

1. Oil-glyphthalic enamels are used for finishing interiors, metal and wood products used indoors;
2. Fixol enamels are made on the basis of a fatty oil varnish.

Enamel coatings have high weather resistance and a semi-mirror shine:

1. emulsion enamels - a suspension of pigments and emulsions from a paint-oil base and water with the addition of organic solvents and driers;
2. nitrocellulose enamels are quick-drying, have good flow and coverage, and form a shiny coating;
3. polyester enamels are superior to others in decorative and strength qualities; have high strength, hardness, shine, light, heat, water and frost resistance;
4. pentaphthalic enamels are used for painting products used in atmospheric conditions;
5. perchlorovinyl enamels are resistant to chemical reagents and weatherproof.

Accounting for cost variances

Summary information about fluctuations in the cost of purchased materials can be provided by account 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets,” which is applied only when the organization’s accounting already uses account 15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets.”

Account 16 is applied on the assumption that for the financial year a fixed accounting price, or planned price, is established for each type and grade of material. All actual expenses for the purchase of materials during the month are collected on account 15. At the end of the month, materials are valued at fixed accounting prices and written off to account 10. And the difference between the actual cost of purchased materials and their cost at accounting prices is written off to account 16: if there is a difference positive, i.e. the actual cost is greater, then it is written off to the debit of account 16, otherwise - to the credit of account 16.

Count 16 is the so-called counter-additional count. This means that it is used to adjust the accounting value of some object reflected in another account, which is the main account of this object. For count 16, the main count is count 10.

Using account 16 in accounting entails additional labor costs. In particular, analytical accounting of each type and grade of materials will have to be maintained in two accounting accounts simultaneously: account 10 and 16.

In addition to account 16, the cost of materials reflected in account 19 can be adjusted using another account - 14 “Reserves for reducing the cost of material assets.”

Before preparing financial statements for the year, the actual cost of material assets according to accounting data is compared with their market value, i.e., with the possible sale price. If the market value of material assets is lower than their accounting value, then these assets are reflected in the balance sheet at their market value. And the difference between market and accounting values ​​is attributed to financial results.

This rule applies only to assets involved in the organization's operating cycle, in particular to materials, finished products and goods. The amount of the reserve for reduction in the cost of materials is determined for each type and grade of material as the difference between its accounting value and the market price.

To adjust the cost of materials when preparing reports, account 14 is used. For the total amount of the reserve for all materials as of the end of the financial year, an entry is made in the debit of account 91 “Other income and expenses” and the credit of account 14 “Reserves for reducing the cost of material assets.” Due to this entry, the profit of the ending financial year is reduced by the amount of the created reserve.

On the first date of the next financial year, the reserved amount is restored by an entry to the debit of account 14 and the credit of account 91. Accordingly, account 14 is closed on the assumption that during the coming financial year, the material assets involved in the operating cycle of the organization will be completely used up.

Account 14 is a so-called contra account: it is used to reduce the accounting value of a certain object reflected in another accounting account - the main account of this object. Like all contra accounts, it is formally considered a passive account. Objects whose value is reduced using this account can be accounted for in account 10. Accordingly, for contra account 14, account 10 is the main one.

But, as already mentioned, account 14 can be used to reduce the accounting value of any assets used in the operating cycle of the organization. Therefore, accounts 41 “Goods”, 43 “Finished products”, etc. can also act as the main account for counter account 14.

Paint coating process

The process of applying paint and varnish coatings consists of the following operations:

1. surface preparation for painting;
2. application of paints and varnishes;
3. drying.

Preparing the surface for painting includes cleaning it from dirt, oil, rust, as well as priming and puttying. Degrease surfaces with aqueous solutions of synthetic detergents (SDC): labomide, solvents (acetone and white spirit). The most productive and safe use of aqueous solutions of SMS. In this case, degreasing the surface of the parts can be done in washing machines. To obtain strong adhesion of the paint and varnish coating, apply

primer layer (primer). The composition and type of primer are selected depending on the material of the surface to be primed and the type of paint. Apply the primer layer with a spray gun in the spray booth. Dry the primer in heat chambers at a temperature of 100...110°C for 0.5...1.5 hours or at room temperature for at least 48 hours. To achieve a high cleanliness of finishing and sealing of sinkholes and irregularities, the primed surfaces are puttied. Putties are pastes that are applied with a special tool - a spatula. The composition of putties depends on the type of paint used. The most commonly used putty consists of chalk, drying oil and paint glue in a certain proportion. After the putty has dried, the surface is leveled with pumice and sanded with sandpaper, washed with water and dried.

The surfaces are painted by applying a layer of paint followed by drying. Paints are applied to the surface using pneumatic sprayers, airless sprayers (Fig. 1), electrostatic painting equipment or a paint brush.

Painted surfaces are dried under natural conditions (at room temperature 15...25°C) or special devices (drying chambers) are used for this purpose in order to increase the ambient temperature. Drying in

Natural conditions occur within 1…2 days. Increasing the temperature to 100...110°C accelerates the drying process to 1...3 hours.

Accounting for transportation and procurement costs

For the convenience of accounting and distribution of transportation and procurement costs associated with the purchase of materials, the organization’s accounting policy may provide for the use of account 15.

The purchase of materials is reflected in accounting as follows. Based on the settlement documents that were received by the organization and signify the transfer of ownership of materials, entries are made in the debit of account 15 (for the cost of materials excluding VAT) and the debit of account 19 “Value added tax on acquired values” (for the amount of VAT included in the cost materials).

Account 15 also accumulates all transportation and procurement costs associated with the delivery of materials to the organization. And when they actually arrive, an entry is made to the debit of account 10 “Materials” and the credit of account 15 for the cost of materials without VAT.

Account 15 is convenient to use when there is a large range of materials when they are delivered by one vehicle. Transportation and procurement costs can be accumulated on account 15 during the month and written off from it to account 10 only at the end of the month. In analytical accounting of materials, transportation and procurement costs are distributed among individual types and grades of materials received during the month, in proportion to their cost.

Wood materials

Wood is heterogeneous in its structure, appearance and properties. It depends on the direction of the grain in relation to the tree trunk. In a transverse section (section perpendicular to the axis of the trunk), the following parts are distinguished:

1. core - located in the center, is a loose tissue with a diameter of 2...5 mm;
2. wood is the main mass of the trunk, constituting 90% of its volume. It consists of core and sapwood. The nucleus is adjacent to the core and represents a dead central zone that does not participate in physiological processes. Next comes the sapwood, the living zone of the wood;
3. bark - covers the outside of the trunk; consists of an inner bast layer and an outer crust. The bark serves to protect the tree from external influences;
4. cambium is a thin, invisible layer between the crust and the wood.

In the forestry industry, the main harvesting object is the tree trunk. The trunks cut down and cleared of twigs and branches are called whips. Depending on the size, defects and quality, the whips are cut into assortments intended for different purposes.

The main conifers are pine, spruce, fir, larch, cedar, yew, and juniper.

The main deciduous species are oak, ash, hornbeam, maple, beech, birch, alder, linden, aspen, walnut, poplar, and willow.

The structure of wood is divided into macrostructure and microstructure. Macrostructure is that structure that can be seen with the naked eye or with a magnifying glass. The main macroscopic characteristics of wood are sapwood, heartwood, annual layers, heart-shaped rays, heart-shaped repetitions, vessels and resin ducts.

Microstructure refers to a structure that can be detected using microscopes, as well as chemical and physical methods.

Coniferous wood is distinguished by its comparative simplicity and regularity of structure, while deciduous wood has a more complex structure.

Chemical composition of wood. The elemental composition of the organic part of wood of all species is almost the same. Absolutely dry wood contains 49...50% carbon; 43...44% oxygen; about 6% hydrogen; 0.1...0.3% nitrogen.

The organic part of wood consists of cellulose, hemicellulose (it consists of pentosans and hexosans), lignin, extractives (resins, gums, fats, tannins, pectins, etc.).

Organic artificial and synthetic fibers

Synthetic matter is produced (synthesized) from products of oil, gas or coal processing. Such fabrics are most often stronger than natural and artificial ones, but are inferior to them in hygroscopicity and breathability. Popular synthetic materials: acrylic, polyester, polyester, lycra, polyamide and others.

Artificial fibers are obtained from natural high-molecular compounds - from cellulose and its derivatives, as well as from proteins of animal and plant origin. And even glass!

Popular types of fabrics made from artificial organic fibers: viscose, modal, acetate, acrylic, lyocell , etc.

• Mixed. There are many variations of combined materials! Sometimes natural silk or even wool can be added to natural cotton fibers. When cotton is mixed with artificial viscose fibers, the fabric becomes even more durable and hygroscopic. A pleasant soft shine appears.

Often, to improve the properties of natural fabrics, manufacturers add synthetic components to the composition. Elastane, for example, gives the fabric stretchy properties. The combination of polyester and cotton - polycotton - is also a win-win for both parties. In this case, cotton almost does not deform or shrink, and polyester does not become electrified. A combination of natural and synthetic threads most often reduces the cost of the finished fabric.

• Weaves. Knowledge of weaving patterns will help you make an informed choice of exactly the fabric that is needed for your needs. It is the weave that determines the appearance of the woven fabric, its density and structure.

Important concepts are weft and warp. This is a system for guiding threads during weaving. It is their method of weaving that affects how the fabric turns out on the loom. The warp is vertical threads parallel to each other. Weft are threads that are perpendicular to the warp.

Plain weave. The simplest and most popular option, which is also considered one of the most ancient methods. The warp and weft threads overlap each other in a checkerboard pattern. Such fabrics withstand mechanical stress, are smooth to the touch, and have a matte appearance. The density of the fibers affects the degree of stiffness of the fabric.

Examples: made of cotton - calico, chintz, cambric; made of silk - crepe de chine, chiffon; made of wool - flannel; made of linen - canvas.

Twill. A weave that forms a visible diagonal rib on the surface of the fabric, usually directed from top to bottom and left to right, but the reverse direction of the rib can also be seen in the case of a reverse twill weave.

Fabrics woven in this way are very durable, so they are often used for upholstery or bedding.

Examples: from cotton - denim (it is not surprising that this material was originally intended for the production of work clothes), from wool - tweed, gabardine.

Satin. If the weft system of threads predominates on the front side, this type of weave is called satin. With a high twist of threads, the fabric acquires shine. Both satin and satin weaving methods produce fabrics that are particularly smooth to the touch.

Examples: silk satin crepe; drape-satin made of wool.

Satin. In this type of weave, the warp threads predominate on the front side, that is, one warp thread overlaps four wefts.

Example: from silk - satin, crepe-satin, stretch satin.

Gasketing, sealing and insulating materials and carbon graphite materials

Gasket and sealing materials are used to impart density and tightness to the connections of machine parts and eliminate possible leakage of liquid and gas breakthrough.

Insulating materials are organic and inorganic substances that have fire resistance and low thermal and electrical conductivity. They are used to insulate live parts of machines and electrical wires. The following cushioning and insulating materials are widely used:

1. paper - sheet material made from plant fibers and cellulose;
2. cellulose - plant fibers purified from resins and other components;
3. cardboard - specially processed thick paper with a thickness of 0.25...3 mm. Depending on the processing method, it acquires oil and gasoline resistance, electrical and thermal insulation;
4. fiber is a type of paper material impregnated with a solution of zinc chloride. It is highly durable and easy to machine, oil and petrol resistant. The disadvantage of fiber is its significant hygroscopicity, so when moistened it becomes deformed. Fibers are used for the manufacture of washers, gaskets and bushings;
5. asbestos is a naturally occurring fibrous white mineral composed of silica and small amounts of iron oxide and calcium oxide. It is characterized by high fire resistance, as well as low thermal and electrical conductivity, and can withstand temperatures up to 500°C. Asbestos is used to make fiber, threads, cords, fabrics mixed with cotton and pure asbestos fabrics, sheet and cushioning asbestos materials, asbestos paper, cardboard;
6. paronite - sheet material made of asbestos, rubber and fillers; used for sealing water and steam lines, as well as pipelines and fittings for petroleum products: gasoline, kerosene, oil;
7. felt is a porous sheet material made from wool fibers. Air pores in it make up at least 75% of the volume. Felt has high heat and sound insulation, as well as shock-absorbing properties. It is used for packing stuffing boxes and making gaskets.

In mechanical engineering, sealing and sealing joints of parts is important. Various sealants are used for these purposes. The sealing liquid gasket GIPC-244 is intended for sealing fixed joints of parts and assembly units operating in water, steam-water, acid-base and oil-gasoline environments. Sealing putty U-20A is intended for sealing joints in air and water environments. Sealant elastosil 137-83

seals fixed joints in water, steam-water, acid-base and oil environments. Anaerobic adhesive DN-1 ensures sealing of joints with gaps up to 0.15 mm.

Mineral wool is a product of processing metallurgical or fuel slag. It serves to insulate surfaces with low and high heating temperatures. Mineral wool-based slabs glued with phenolic resin or bitumen emulsion are also used as insulating materials.

Insulating rubberized tape is a harsh thin cotton fabric (calico) impregnated on one or both sides with a sticky raw rubber mixture. Adhesive insulating tape is a plastic film coated with a layer of perchlorovinyl adhesive. Tape thickness is 0.20...0.45 mm, width - 15...50 mm.

Graphite-based materials are used to produce graphite-carbon materials, from which sliding electrical contacts, melting crucibles, casting molds, bearing materials, etc. are made.

Carbon-graphite antifriction materials are designed to work without lubrication as bearing supports, sealing devices and other rubbing parts in the temperature range from –200 to +2000°C at sliding speeds of up to 100 m/s and in aggressive environments. These include:

1. graphite-plastic antifriction materials on an epoxy-organosilicon binder of the AMS-1, AMS-3, AMS-5 brands;
2. graphite fluoroplastic materials based on fluoroplastic-4 grades AFGM, AFG-80VS, 7V-2A;
3. antifriction graphitized materials of the NIGRAN and NIGRAN-V brands, etc.

Carbon-graphite materials with increased mechanical strength are used at elevated temperatures. Graphite for electrical discharge machining is produced in the form of bars of the EEG and EEPG grades; graphite grades MG, GMZ, PPG are used for the manufacture of crucibles, equipment for vacuum furnaces, heaters, protective covers of thermocouples, anti-corrosion and heat-resistant pipes, etc. Siliconized graphite SG-M, SG-T, SG-P is used for the manufacture of electric heaters operating in oxidizing conditions gas environments. Borosiliconized graphite BST-ZS is intended for the manufacture of heat-resistant foundry equipment. Graphite for the manufacture of chemical equipment of the ATM-1 and ATM-1T brands operates at temperatures from –18 to +150°C.

Classification of fabrics by weave

The properties of the fabrics depend on the type of weave. Weave is the mutual overlap of warp threads with weft threads. Report is a repeating element of a weaving pattern (drawing), characterized by the number of threads for its formation.

There are several types of weaves. The appearance, smoothness and shine, or lack thereof, strength and stretchability depend on them.

Knitwear

The structure of the knitwear consists of interconnected loops of the same shape. There are several types of weaves.

The one-sided weaving method is satin stitch, the most popular type in the production of materials for sewing underwear, sportswear, turtlenecks, and T-shirts. The canvases stretch in the transverse and longitudinal direction.

Knitted weave can be cross-knitted or warp-knitted in direction, and single or double in the number of needle beds. The properties of the canvas depend on the composition of the raw materials, but all materials have elasticity.

Satin

Satin weave is a method of arranging threads in a fabric where the weft thread overlaps 4 or more warp threads and is characterized by an elongated overlap. Due to the special weaving method, the fabric gets shine and smoothness. If a twisted thread is used, the surface becomes embossed.

With this weaving method, the fabric obtains good color fastness after dyeing, wear resistance, density and softness.

Polotnyanoye

Plain weave is characterized by the arrangement of the weft and warp threads in a checkerboard pattern. It is considered durable and tough. Fabrics made using the simple weave method are easy to sew. Their edges practically do not crumble.

There are several varieties of plain weave: threads of the same thickness form a smooth surface, threads of different thicknesses create a rib. Due to the high density of fibers, a grainy effect (crepe) is created.

Twill

Twill weave is identical to simple weave, but has two differences:

• unlike linen, which has 2 threads in rapport, it has 3 threads;
• when moving to the next rapport, a shift occurs by 1 thread.

The result of this weaving is a diagonal hem. Twill weave fabrics are thicker and heavier than plain weave fabrics. The fabrics are abrasion resistant, stretchy and drape well.

Reps

Rep is identical to linen. Thanks to the grouping of threads, a dense scar is formed. The fabric was called rep.

It is durable and soft. But due to its high density, it loses its ability to stretch - this must be taken into account when designing clothes. Fit according to the figure in this case is done through darts and design lines.

Composite materials

Composite materials (composites) are heterogeneous systems consisting of two or more phases.

One of the components, which is continuous throughout the entire volume, serves as a matrix. The other, divided in the volume of the composition, is reinforcing.

Matrix materials can be metals, alloys, thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, ceramics or other substances. Reinforcing components are fine powders or fibrous materials of various natures. Based on the type of reinforcing material, composites are divided into two main groups - dispersion-strengthened and fibrous.

The structure of the dispersion-strengthened composite material is a metal matrix in which fine particles of the second component are evenly distributed.

The following composites have found application in industry:

1. based on aluminum - composites such as SAP (sintered aluminum powder), which are an aluminum matrix strengthened with Al2O3 oxide particles, are widely used in the aviation industry;
2. beryllium based - designed for long-term operation at high temperatures;
3. based on magnesium - have low density, high long-term strength and high creep resistance;
4. based on nickel and cobalt - designed for operation at high temperatures - over 1000°C;
5. fibrous - the matrix is ​​reinforced with high-strength fibers (threaded crystals, wire, etc.) that absorb the load, as a result of which the strengthening of the composite is achieved. Their properties are determined by the nature of the matrix and fiber materials, as well as the methods of reinforcement;
6. fiberglass - used in the aviation industry for the manufacture of high-pressure cylinders;
7. organoplastics are the lightest composites; used as facing material;
8. Carbon fiber reinforced plastics are the most promising type of composites; used in aviation and space technology, automotive industry;
9. boroplastics - used in power structures;
10. with a carbon matrix - used for thermal protection of aircraft brake discs and chemically resistant equipment;
11. with a metal matrix (aluminum, magnesium, titanium) - used in the aviation industry, and also as a heat-resistant material.

Documentation of receipt of materials

Materials can come to the organization from the outside world: both from business partners - suppliers through the mediation of other organizations - carriers, and through the organization's employees - accountable persons. But sometimes materials can be generated within the organization itself, for example, as a result of the liquidation of its property that has become unusable.

The fact of receipt of materials must be documented in a document on the basis of which the receipt of materials is recorded in the accounting records of the organization.

If materials arrive from a supplier (through the mediation of a carrier), then the standard procedure for processing the receipt of these materials will be as follows. Along with the materials, the supplier (or carrier) transfers accompanying documents: a bill of lading, a consignment note or some other document. An employee of the organization responsible for receiving materials (usually an employee of a structural unit of the organization - the supply department) checks the correctness of the accompanying documents and the compliance of the received materials with the accompanying documents.

In addition, incoming materials must be accompanied by an invoice. Formally, it is an independent document, but, in essence, it is an annex to the main accompanying document, which is most often a consignment note. The invoice duplicates the information of the main accompanying document.

If the employee of the organization does not find any discrepancies between the composition of the materials and the document, then he signs on behalf of the organization the accompanying document (which is present with the cargo in at least two copies) and keeps one copy for himself.

He performs the same actions with the invoice, which is also present with the cargo in at least two copies.

The sending organization and the carrier organization must receive their copies of the accompanying document with a registration in it of the fact of acceptance of the materials by the recipient organization. These copies are signed by authorized employees of the recipient organization, and their signatures are certified by the round seal of the organization.

Then an employee of the recipient organization can draw up a receipt order containing a list of accepted materials indicating their quantity and cost. The receipt order is an internal document of the organization; on its basis, materials are accepted into the organization's warehouse.

If the materials arrived with serious damage to the packaging or an employee of the recipient organization discovered a discrepancy between the composition of the materials and the accompanying document, then a materials acceptance certificate is drawn up for their acceptance.

It is important for the recipient organization that in such a situation the act is drawn up in a legally flawless manner. It is possible that in the future it will serve as the basis for filing claims against the supplier or carrier of materials. And in the absence of legal impeccability, claims may be brought against the purchasing organization.

If the acceptance of goods is carried out outside the organization, then a power of attorney is issued,

which is used to formalize the right of a person to act as a trustee of an organization when receiving material assets.

Receipts of materials to the warehouse of materials manufactured by the organization itself can be documented with an invoice requirement.

Materials can also come from accountable persons - employees of the organization who purchased them in cash. The accountable person formalizes the purchase of materials - an advance report,

to which are attached documents confirming the fact of payment for acquired material assets: receipts for cash receipt orders of other organizations, checks from cash registers.

The advance report is drawn up by the accountable person in one copy and submitted to the organization’s accounting department. This document serves not so much to formalize the receipt of materials, but rather to formalize cash payments between the accountable person and the organization. And when materials are received from an accountable person at the warehouse, a receipt order is issued.

Materially responsible persons of the materials warehouse (storekeepers) maintain materials accounting cards,

which take into account the movement of materials in the warehouse for each type, grade and size. Entries in the card are made by storekeepers on the basis of primary receipts and expenditure documents on the day of the transaction.

Abrasive materials

Natural and artificial substances with high hardness - carbides, oxides, nitrides, diamond - are used as abrasives.

Abrasives are designed for grinding and polishing a wide variety of materials. These operations are carried out using abrasive powder in a free state, an abrasive tool (circles, segments, bars, sandpaper), in which the abrasive grains are connected by a binder (organic, ceramic, metal), and pastes, which, in addition to the abrasive powder, include viscous lubricants substances. Abrasive powders depending on size, i.e. grain size of the main fraction, divided into:

1. grinding (2000...160 microns);
2. grinding powders (125...40 microns);
3. micropowders (63...3 microns).

The most widespread in metalworking are electrocorundum Al2O3, silicon carbide SiC, STM - cubic boron nitride - BN and diamond.

The abrasive ability of abrasives (estimated by the mass of the ground reference material - glass - at the same abrasive consumption) is approximately proportional to hardness (Table 1).

Table 1

RELATIVE ABRASIVE CAPACITY OF ABRASIVE MATERIALS

Electrocorundum is obtained by smelting from bauxite or alumina. The following varieties are produced: normal, white, alloyed, monocorundum and spherocorundum. Normal electrocorundum contains 92...96% Al2O3, its hardness is 1900...2000 HV. It is used for the manufacture of organic bonded wheels and pastes used for processing non-hardened carbon steels, cast irons, and non-ferrous metals.

White electrocorundum contains 97...99% Al2O3. The hardness of such electrocorundum is 2000…21,000 HV. It is used for the manufacture of organic bonded wheels and pastes used for processing carbon, alloy, and high-speed steels.

Monocorundum is used for processing difficult-to-cut steels and alloys. Ceramic bonded wheels and sanding paper are made from it.

Alloyed corundum wheels are recommended for processing hardened steels with high hardness.

Tools made of spherocorundum on various bonds are used for processing soft and viscous materials: leather, rubber, plastic, non-ferrous metals.

Silicon carbide is used for processing cast iron, non-ferrous metals and non-metallic materials.

The use of diamond-based STM can increase processing productivity and improve the quality of processed parts.

Documentation of transfer of materials

When releasing materials from the warehouse one-time, it is convenient to use a demand invoice.

But if materials of the same type are often released from the warehouse, then another document is used -
a limit card.
The procedure for maintaining a limit-fence card is as follows. Before the start of the month, the heads of each division submit requests to the organization's management, which indicate the maximum quantity of each material required by the division during the coming month. The declared quantities are adjusted and approved by the head of the organization.

The maximum quantity of each type of material that departments can receive from the warehouse during a month is called the limit.

A department representative can receive materials from the warehouse within a month without issuing new documents.
Upon receipt, he signs directly on the materials accounting card,
and the storekeeper signs on the limit-fence card.

Excessive supply of materials and replacement of some types of materials with others are allowed only with the separate permission of the head of the organization or persons authorized to do so.

Other documents may be used to transfer materials, for example:

• invoice for the release of materials to the outside
  - for accounting for the release of material assets to territorially separate divisions of the organization or business partners;
• card for recording low-value and wear-out items
  - for recording low-value and wear-out items issued to an employee against signature for long-term use.

Lubricating oils and greases

The main function of lubricants is to reduce friction and eliminate the associated phenomenon of jamming of moving parts of machine parts and mechanisms. Lubricants also reduce power loss due to friction, remove heat and protect lubricated surfaces from the action of substances that cause corrosion and rusting. In many cases, the lubricant is the sealing medium. Currently, the main lubricants are mineral oils and lubricants obtained from petroleum feedstocks, greases and lubricating coolants.

All mineral oils are divided into four groups according to production method and composition: distillate, residual, mixed and oils with additives. According to the reagents used in processing, they are divided into three main groups: selectively purified oils, sulfuric acid purification and hydrogenation purification. Depending on their viscosity, mineral oils are divided into light, medium and heavy. Based on their primary areas of application, all lubricating oils are divided into the following groups: industrial (velocit, vaseline, spindle 2, IS-12, separate T, VNII NP-401, IS-45, machine SU, IST-11, cylinder 24, etc.) ; aviation (MK-8, MS-14, MS-8, MK-22, MS-20Sp, etc.); motor (motor transport Asp-6, automobile AS-9.5, tractor AK-15, diesel Dp-8, diesel D-11, M-10G, MT-8p, M-19D, etc.); transmission (TS-14.5, TAD-17, Arctic TSP3p-9, automobile, for trolleybus gearboxes, etc.); vacuum; for steam and refrigeration machines (cylinder 24, cylinder 52, HA. HA-23, HF-22-24, etc.); compressor (K-12, K-19, MK-22p, K-28, etc.); sentries, etc.

The main indicators of the quality and purpose of mineral oils are viscosity, flash point and pour point, stability against oxidation, anti-corrosion properties, etc.

Greases include liquid oils and solid thickeners. They are classified according to their main areas of application. In this case, general-purpose antifriction lubricants (solidol) are isolated; multi-purpose lubricants; high-temperature (VNPI NP-214, CIATIM-221s. VNIINP-246, PFMS-4S, VNPP NP-225, NK-50, etc.);

low-temperature (MS-7), GOP 54p, CIATIM-200, etc.); instrument lubricants; lubricants resistant to aggressive environments; industrial (IP-1, No. 137, LS-1p, etc.); specialized automobiles and a number of others.